Japanese Blue and Green #23_ The Edo Period (Part 2)

Japanese Blue and Green #23

In the previous article, we examined Edo-period perceptions of "青" (Ao) through the interpretation of fish coloration. The functions identified were:

A. Color name: subdued green tones
B. Tone name: ambiguous states such as grayish colors, or extremely low brightness states that are "almost black"
C. Color group name: completely encompassing the range from blue to green
D. Plants in general; the color of chlorophyll
E. Young and immature states

Of these, we confirmed that function C—the color-group name—remained intact, while function B—the tone name—appeared to be in the process of fading out. As for hue, the character "青" (Ao) tended to be avoided in honzōsho (本草書, Japanese materia medica), leaving that dimension difficult to assess.

In this installment, we turn to functions A and D: "Ao" as a color name for subdued green tones, and "Ao" in reference to plants in general and the color of chlorophyll.

"青" (Ao) in Plants

We begin with "青" (Ao) as it applies to plants, using "万年青" (Omoto:  Rohdea japonica) as our example.

Omoto: Rohdea japonica

"Omoto" is an evergreen perennial of the subfamily Nolinoideae, and true to its name, it does not wither in winter, maintaining its deep green leaves throughout the year. The very name Omoto — written with the character "青" — confirms that the age-old perception of "the green of plants = Ao" was still very much alive.

There is a well-known episode in which 徳川家康 (Tokugawa Ieyasu: 1543–1616, the first shogun of the Tokugawa shogunate) received "Omoto" as a gift to celebrate the completion of Edo Castle's main keep, and was greatly pleased by it. His subsequent longevity, combined with the ongoing prosperity of the Edo shogunate, gave rise to the custom of "hikkoshi-omoto" — the practice of moving "Omoto" into a new home before anything else, as a good-luck ritual for relocations.

"Omoto" sparked a horticultural craze among daimyo and hatamoto alike, with rare varieties reportedly fetching astonishing prices. The boom reached its peak during the "天保" (Tenpō era: 1830–1844), and the enthusiasm that began among the warrior class eventually spread to commoners as well. The "Ao" of plants — as embodied in "Omoto" — was a perception shared across all levels of society.


The "青" (Ao) of plants can also be confirmed in the word "青物" (Aomono). While the term is also applied to blue-backed fish such as yellowtail and amberjack, in the Edo period vegetables were commonly referred to as "Aomono."

"神田青物市場" (Kanda Aomono Ichiba: Kanda Aomono Market), established during the "慶長" (Keichō era: 1596–1615), was the largest vegetable market sustaining the food supply of Edo, and was commonly known as "Yacchabā." Kanda, Komagome, and Senju were collectively referred to as the "Three Great Yacchabā of Edo." In 1714, the shogunate established an "青物役所" (Aomono-yakusho: Office of Aomono) at these markets to oversee the supply of vegetables to Edo Castle. The fact that the character "青" (Ao) appeared in the name of an official government office tells us that function D — "Ao" in reference to plants in general and the color of chlorophyll — was thoroughly embedded in common understanding.


"青物横丁" (Aomono-yokochō) is another well-known example. The "東海道五十三次" (Tōkaidō Gojūsan-tsugi: the 53 Stations of the Tōkaidō, the fifty-three post stations along the coastal road connecting Nihonbashi in Edo to Kyoto) — the first of these post-towns was "品川宿" (Shinagawa-juku: Shinagawa post-town), and the southernmost part of this post-town corresponds to the area around "京浜急行" (Keikyu Railway) Aomono-yokochō Station. It was here that farmers gathered to trade freshly harvested vegetables.

It should be noted, however, that this market was not officially recognized as such until the Meiji period (1868–1912). The informal name "青物横町" (Aomono-yokochō) had already been in common use among the people since the Edo period, and it was only with the advent of the Meiji period that official institutions finally caught up with established reality.

(Image: Aomono Yokocho Shopping Street Association)

This also implies that the shogunate did not regulate trade at this location. Given that Aomono-yokochō was roughly as close to Edo Castle as Senju — if not closer — I decided to look into why trading there was allowed to operate freely.

Several factors may account for this:

1. The direct-from-farmer sales model meant that no wholesalers were involved, placing the market outside the jurisdiction of the "株仲間" (kabu-nakama: licensed merchant guild) system.
   
   
2. The needs of post-town travelers had to be considered, as Shinagawa was an important stop on the "参勤交代" (sankin-kōtai: the system requiring daimyo to alternate residence between their domain and Edo) route.
   
   
3. There was a jurisdictional divide: markets fell under the authority of the "町奉行" (machi-bugyō: city magistrate), while post-towns were overseen by the "道中奉行" (dōchū-bugyō: magistrate of roads).
   
   
4. The area was home to a semi-farming, semi-fishing population — a small-scale farming village on the outskirts of the city — meaning the volume of trade may simply have been too small to warrant regulation.

Of these factors, the jurisdictional divide was likely the most significant. The machi-bugyō's office must have been aware of the trading taking place here, yet it was evidently not common practice to coordinate across jurisdictional boundaries. The fact that the market was not officially recognized until the Meiji period may well be a trace of the Edo shogunate's siloed administrative structure.

A station called "青物横町" (Aomono-yokochō) opened in 1904 (Meiji 37), though it is reportedly unclear exactly when the name changed to "青物横丁." It is said to be the only railway station in Japan with "横丁" (yokochō: alley) in its name.

"青漆" (Seishitsu)

I now turn to the hue of "青" (Ao) in the Edo period. The first subject is lacquer. In addition to the conventional red and black lacquer finishes, two new types were developed: "黄漆" (ki-urushi / ōshitsu: yellow lacquer) and "青漆" (seishitsu: blue-green lacquer). Both appear to have been in use as early as the 15th or 16th century, but it was during the Edo period that they came into widespread use.

"黄漆" (ōshitsu: yellow lacquer) was made by mixing lacquer with "黄鉛" (ōen: chrome yellow, a yellow pigment based on lead chromate), while "青漆" (seishitsu) was produced by adding indigo and similar pigments to ōshitsu.

青漆椿蒔絵梅椀 Bowl with Blue-Green Lacquer and Camellia and Plum Blossom Makie Decoration / Edo period	鵬雲斎好写 叩黒塗 内青漆 天目台 A Replica of the Tenmokudai Stand with Hammered Black Lacquer Exterior and "seishitsu" Interior, favored by "Hōunsai"
(Image: MIHO MUSEUM)	(Image: 静友堂)

The surviving Edo-period pieces have a muted, slightly sunken green quality. Anyone who looks at such a color and recognizes it as "青" (Ao) — as a distinctly Japanese shade of "青" — truly understands the history of the word.

The "守貞漫稿" (Morisada Mankō), which is an Edo-period chronicle documenting the customs of Kyoto, Osaka, and Edo, records that "seishitsu" was used as a coloring material for raincoats, and that it was also used on the signboards of confectionery shops in Edo. This confirms that "seishitsu" was not a term coined retrospectively, and suggests that it was a word in common everyday use.

By the Edo period, "緑" (Midori) had certainly become a well-established color name in its own right. And yet, this deeper shade of green was apparently still perfectly at home under the umbrella of "青" (Ao). Whether such greens sat at the very center of Ao's range is difficult to say, but there is no question that subdued green tones remained within the scope of "青" (Ao) throughout this period.

"青本" (Ao-hon)

During the Edo period, a genre of popular illustrated fiction known as "草双紙" (kusazōshi) was widely read by the general public. These works were classified by the color of their covers: "赤本" (Aka-hon: red books), "青本" (Ao-hon: 'Ao' books), "黒本" (Kuro-hon: black books), and "黄表紙" (Ki-byōshi: yellow covers). The "Aka-hon" were published from the "寛文" (Kanbun: 1673–1681) era through the "寛延" (Kan'en: 1748–1751) era, while the "Kuro-hon" and "Ao-hon" were published roughly between 1744 and 1774.

As for the specific colors: the "Aka-hon" used "丹色" (Niiro: see here), the "Kuro-hon" used ink black, and the "Ao-hon" used "萌黄色" (Moegi-iro). The "Ki-byōshi" were, of course, yellow. It is said that because the "Ao-hon" covers tended to fade to yellow over time, publishers decided to simply use yellow from the outset — and thus the "Ki-byōshi" was born.

Below is an "Ao-hon" that appeared in the NHK taiga drama "べらぼう" (Berabō, UNBOUND).

(Image: NHK)

The color is unmistakably "Moegi-iro," and this serves as a clear example of green being at the core of "青" (Ao). To my eye, however, it reads more as "the original '緑' (Midori)" — a color evoking freshness and vitality. Can a color like this really be treated as just another shade of "Ao"? A color this vivid naturally raises questions. Perhaps in traditional contexts such as kimono or tea ceremony, calling such a color "青" (Ao) was acceptable — but given that the word "緑" (Midori) existed, I find it difficult to understand why it would not have been used here.

I have examined surviving copies of "Ao-hon," but every one of them has faded considerably, making it difficult to draw any firm conclusions.

Aka-hon (はちかつぎひめ: The Bowl-Bearer Princess)	Ao-hon (臥夜黒牡丹: Black Peony of the Night)
(画像: National Diet Library)

These images show actual surviving copies. The "Aka-hon" retain much of their original "Niiro" pigment, while the "Ao-hon" covers have lost almost all of their color. The blue component was most likely derived from "蓼藍" (tade-ai: Japanese indigo), but as these were inexpensive popular publications, the pigment was probably applied simply with a brush. Determining the original color from what survives would be no easy task.

As noted earlier, the fading of the "Ao-hon" covers to yellow gave rise to the "Ki-byōshi," and by the same logic it is almost certain that, as with green dyeing techniques, a yellow base material such as "苅安" (Kariyasu: Japanese wood reed) or "黄蘗" Kihada: Amur cork tree) was used as an undercoat. The resulting color would have varied depending on the number of times indigo was layered over it and the amount applied.

The source of the claim that the "Ao-hon" covers were "Moegi-iro" is worth examining. It appears to derive from "半日閑話" (Hannichi Kanwa), an essay by "大田南畝" (Ōta Nanpo, 1749–1823). No other sources corroborating this detail have come to light, and the field seems to rely heavily on this single reference.

半日閑話 巻之13 (Hannichi Kanwa Volume 13)
(Images: University of Tsukuba Library)

The manuscript clearly states "萌黄色の表紙" (Moegi-iro covers). Ōta Nanpo had three "Ao-hon" in his home, and he noted that the moegi-iro had turned yellow. Whether moegi-iro was the officially declared color or simply Nanpo's own assessment is unclear.

The fact that the color faded so quickly suggests that the original shade may have been somewhat lighter. It is worth noting that among the "襲色目" (kasane no irome: combination of colors created by layering of garments, practiced by the Heian court nobility), there is a combination called "萌黄の匂" (Moegi no nioi), which comprised four gradations of Moegi — "より淡い萌黄" (lighter pale Moegi), "淡萌黄" (pale Moegi), "萌黄" (Moegi), and "濃萌黄" (deep Moegi) — paired with "紅" (Kurenai: crimson).

The "lighter pale Moegi" is essentially identical to "浅緑" (Asa-Midori: see here). Interestingly, every gradation except the standard "Moegi" — the second from the right — feels more readily acceptable as "青" (Ao). "濃萌黄" (deep Moegi) in particular is a quintessential shade of "Ao." Could the original color have been something along those lines? That said, given that the covers faded as they did, "淡萌黄" (pale Moegi) seems the most plausible candidate.

At this point, let me revisit something introduced in an earlier installment. There is a color called "浅葱色" (Asagi-iro: a color derived from the hue of "葱" (=green onions)). It has long been established that this color was frequently confused with "浅黄色" (Asagi-iro: a pale yellow), despite the two being entirely different colors. Given that written characters were used far less frequently in daily life in earlier times than they are today, such confusion between homophones was entirely natural.

If something similar had occurred with "萌黄色" (Moegi-iro), there is a possibility that it was confused with "萌葱色" (Moegi-iro: a different color sharing the same reading). This is not a matter of a copying error, but rather a suspicion that Ōta Nanpo himself — as the author — may have genuinely conflated the two.

"萌葱色" (Moegi-iro) is a color like this. The method of producing it is essentially the same as that of "萌黄色" (Moegi-iro).

On researching "萌葱色" (Moegi-iro) further, I came across the following account: it is the color of the above-ground portion of "青葱" (Ao-negi: green onions as they emerge from the soil), and was originally written as "萌黄色." As yellower greens also came to be called "萌黄色," the writing "萌葱色" was adopted to distinguish the two. The brighter color is "萌黄色" and the deeper color is "萌葱色."

Various other interpretations exist, but there is no question that in earlier times all such colors were written as "萌黄色," and the color name "萌葱色" did not yet exist.

Further research revealed that the written form "萌葱色" became widespread in the mid-Edo period. The green seen in the "定式幕" (jōshiki-maku: the traditional striped curtain used in kabuki theater) is said to be this shade of "Moegi-iro."

jōshiki-maku
black-persimmon-Moegi	black-Moegi-persimmon
Morita-za style (now Kabuki-za)	Ichimura-za style (now National Theatre)

Given that the sequence ran "Aka-hon — Kuro-hon — Ao-hon," it seems entirely plausible that the covers were deliberately coordinated to evoke the aesthetic of kabuki.

That said, Ōta Nanpo was a kyōka poet who had excelled in scholarship from childhood and also conducted research into ukiyo-e, making him a well-informed cultural authority of his era. It would be natural to assume that he was aware of the jōshiki-maku and its "Moegi-iro." However, given that the written form "萌葱色" only became widespread in the mid-Edo period, there remains a small possibility that his understanding reflected an older convention. For now, I will treat both "萌黄色" (Moegi-iro: the brighter yellow-green) and "萌葱色" (Moegi-iro: the deeper green) as candidates for the original color of the "Ao-hon" covers. As for the "Moegi-iro" used in the NHK drama, I find it a touch too vivid.

Summery

Into the Edo period, "青" (Ao) showed relatively little sign of change.

It should be noted that function E — Ao in reference to young or immature states — was not addressed in this installment. However, as the expression "青二才" (ao-nisai: a greenhorn; an inexperienced young person) appears to have come into use during the Edo period, let me take this opportunity to revisit the full picture:

A. Color name: green tones in general
B. Tone name: ✕
C. Color group name: completely encompassing the range from blue to green
D. Plants in general; the color of chlorophyll
E. Young and immature states

The tonal function of "青" (Ao) had largely faded by this point, though there must have been countless instances of "the Ao of old" — used without conscious thought as to its meaning — in expressions such as "青毛" (ao-ge: a roan or dark coat on a horse) or "アオサギ" (Ao-sagi: the grey heron). Furthermore, the "Ao-hon" example makes it clear that Ao's hue remained firmly in the green range as late as the mid-18th century. The shift to "青" (Ao) = blue would come considerably later.


In the next installment, we turn to the final decades of the Edo period — the 19th century — when a new "青" (Ao) arrived from the West. Stay tuned.