Japanese Blue and Green #9 'Aka' in the Kojiki (Part 3)

Japanese Blue and Green #9

Last time I introduced 丹土(Nido), 鉛丹(Red Lead), and 水銀朱(pigment of mercuric red).
This time, while looking at actual examples of "Ni-nuri(丹塗り)", I will also consider the questions that arose previously about "vermilion being 朱色(Shu-iro; Shu-color)" and "the color of red lead being orange."

◆Niutsuhime Jinja

In the previous article, I mentioned that Sanada Nobushige's base was close to a cinnabar mining area. In that region, there is Niutsuhime Jinja, which is registered as part of the World Heritage Site "Sacred Sites and Pilgrimage Routes in the Kii Mountain Range." The enshrined deity is Niutsuhime-no-Okami, the sister deity of Amaterasu Omikami, who is revered as Kami who governs the "丹(Ni)" used for talismans and purifies all calamities.

The Niu clan, who had lived in this area since ancient times and handled cinnabar, became Shinto priest who worshipped Niutsuhime-no-Okami. This was because the Hata clan, who possessed mercury refining technology, came from China. The position of the Niu clan seems to have been something like an honorary role. I believe the Hata clan was capable of producing both 真朱(Shinshu=True 'Shu') and 銀朱(Ginshu=vermilion) at will.

The official website of Niutsuhime Jinja states that '丹(Ni) refers to the red pigment extracted from cinnabar ore.' Therefore, 本朱(Honshu=real 'Shu') must have been used (for convenience, in this article I'll refer to both Shinshu and Ginshu as Honshu).

Since Ni-nuri changes its impression considerably depending on the lighting conditions, I cannot draw conclusions from images alone, but I believe the pillars and steps of the Honden(main sanctuary) are painted with Honshu.

Honden

(Image from the official website of Niutsuhime Jinja)

I'm also including an image of Honshu painted with actual pigments. From left to right, they are Shinshu, Kamakura-shu, and Akakuchi-honshu. The pillars seem to have a color somewhere between Kamakura-shu and Akakuchi-honshu. I would like to see them up close to confirm the color.



The torii gate of this shrine is not painted with Honshu. It may primarily be red lead, or perhaps a completely different pigment.

◆Tsurugaoka Hachimangu

Since there is a pigment called 'Kamakura-shu,' let's take a look at Tsurugaoka Hachimangu.

Romon (Tower gate of Main Shrine)


Kamakura-shu

What do you think? This is quite similar.

Romon and Maiden


I believe Maiden (ritual dance platform) is also painted in exactly the same color.

It seems that the pigment called 'Kamakura-shu' indeed derived its name from this color. Since it is an old pigment, we can see that the color has been consistently preserved over time. I would like to examine the Main Shrine again.

◆The Central Golden Hall at Kofukuji

The pillars of the Central Golden Hall at Kofukuji, which began to be dismantled and investigated in 2000 and was completed in 2018, are believed to be painted with Honshu.
In this reconstruction, they "incorporated ancient construction methods as much as possible," so they must have selected pigments for Ni-nuri that would have been used when this temple was first built during the Nara period.



The color seems close to 'Akakuchi-honshu.' I also feel it might have a slight hint of yellow or brown.

 Akakuchi-honshu

As it follows 'ancient construction methods,' red lead would not have been used, so perhaps the yellowish tint comes solely from the mercury component of Ginshu. However, I would expect it to be more vivid if that were the case, but the color is quite subdued.

Another possibility could be the yellow component of bengala (Fe₂O₃·H₂O). Perhaps mixing Honshu with a lighter bengala could result in this kind of color.

◆Kasugataisha Shrine

At Kasugataisha Shrine, the main hall is painted in vermilion, while the inner gate and corridors are painted in red lead. As with Niutsuhime Jinja, they may be limiting its use to only the most important areas out of environmental considerations.

Honden (Main Sanctuary)

(Image from the official website Kasugataisha Shrine)

Shinshu

For the main sanctuary, they apply a paint mixture of 30% Honshu and 70% red lead, then cover it with a layer of 100% Honshu. Using 100% Honshu seems to be quite rare nowadays. 

This 'Honshu' might be used to mean 'Shinshu.' It feels quite similar, so I would like to see it up close.


Incidentally, in Nara, there was a cinnabar mining area called the 大和水銀鉱山(Yamato Mercury Mine), which was mined until it closed in 1971.

There is also a poem in the Manyoshu that reads:
"山跡之　宇陀乃真赤土　左丹著者　曽許裳香人之　吾乎言将成"
="Yamatono Udanomahanino Sanitsukaba Sokomokahitono Wawokotonasamu"

It means something like: "If the "丹(=cinnabar)" from the red soil of Uda were to stain my face, would people gossip about me just for that?"

This indicates that even at that time, "丹(Ni)" was understood as distinct from soil, not the same thing.

Chumon (Middle Gate) and Cloister


Here is red lead. Red lead shows a bright appearance in natural light. Indeed, the actual color appears brighter than the color that was introduced as '鉛丹色(red lead color).'



Also, in the previous article, I was concerned about the large difference between the color of the red lead pigment and what was introduced as 'red lead color.' It seems this is an issue of the purity of lead tetroxide (Pb₃O₄); apparently, higher purity increases the redness.
At the same time, the beta form of lead monoxide (PbO) that is produced simultaneously has a yellowish color, and perhaps the orange color results when the proportion of this increases.


This substance is also called 金密陀(Kinmitsuda), and there was apparently a time when it was used as a yellow pigment in its own right.
During the Asuka period, a special painting technique called "密陀絵(Mitsuda-e)" using Kinmitsuda was introduced from the continent. Mitsuda-e is a method where Kinmitsuda is used as a drying agent, mixed with drying oils such as linseed oil to prepare paint, which is then applied to silk or wood surfaces and dried to fix the pattern. I suppose this could be considered "Oriental oil painting."

唐人物密陀絵盆 Tray with Chinese Figures	花蝶密陀絵膳 Tables, Flower and butterfly design in litharge painting
Edo period, 18th century	Edo period, 19th century

(Source: ColBase )

I believe that the red tint won't emerge unless the influence of this Kinmitsuda is reduced in the pigment, but I couldn't find a red pigment made of high-purity Pb₃O₄.

Since the reaction is
 3PbO + 1/2O₂ → Pb₃O₄
... I feel there is a possibility.

However, lead is not something to be handled casually. There were products with over 95% purity available for uses other than pigments, but I decided not to purchase them. Because of the danger, I cannot perform the heating experiment mentioned above.

Lead-containing paints have apparently been causing health problems for painters for quite some time, and the Japan Paint Manufacturers Association (JPMA), an incorporated association, declared a complete end to production and sales by its member companies in 2020. However, this declaration has no legal binding force, and since it relies on self-regulation, companies unrelated to this organization can still manufacture red lead normally.

There have been international calls for the elimination of lead-containing paints, and Japan and South Korea are reportedly the only developed countries without legal regulations. Despite knowing it's harmful, the government's reluctance to implement strict regulations might be to maintain the tradition of Ni-nuri. Since red lead color is a traditional color, it is indeed a difficult issue.

However, I believe some regulation is necessary regarding production, sales, purchase, and use. It's strange that you can easily buy rust-preventive red lead paint on Amazon while this is becoming a global issue. For the sake of preserving traditions as well, proper regulations are desired.

Perhaps for such reasons, the fence in front of Chumon (Middle Gate) of Kasuga Taisha is said to be made of synthetic resin. I believe this is because it needs to be repainted frequently.

◆Fushimi Inari Taisha

The thousand torii gates at Fushimi Inari Taisha appear to be painted with pure red lead. They are reportedly painted five times to enhance their vividness while making the color last longer.

Thousand Torii Gates at Fushimi Inari Taisha

However, the red lead issue is a difficult matter for shrines. Will they be able to continue using it in the future?

It concerns me, as this beauty exists because of red lead.

◆Itsukushima Shrine

The O-torii Gate of Itsukushima Shrine is the ninth generation, rebuilt in 1875. At that time, it was reportedly left as plain wood because "朱色(Shu-iro) was considered Buddhist" due to the influence of the edict separating Shinto and Buddhism. However, during the restoration in 1909, it was painted with Ni-nuri.

The most recent restoration was completed in 2022.
Before restoration, it was painted with red lead, but during the latest restoration, an organic pigment was reportedly used. This constitutes a new type of "丹(Ni)."


O-torii Gate (before restoration) _Red lead

O-torii Gate (after restoration) _Organic pigments


This torii gate is immersed in the sea, so using red lead would be particularly problematic. Perhaps such safety and environmentally conscious Ni-nuri will increase in the future.

I can't say for certain because I don't know the degree of change over time, but the color tone has changed quite significantly. Did they calculate that the redness would gradually fade away?

◆Saijo Inari-san Myokyoji Temple

At Saijo Inari-san Myokyoji Temple, a Nichiren sect temple in Okayama, there is a large torii gate painted with bengala.

O-Torii Gate (Great Gate)

(Provided by Okayama Tourism WEB)

It's of amazing size. This is reportedly one of the few precious temples where the "syncretic form" of Shinto and Buddhism was permitted during the time of the edict separating Shinto and Buddhism.

About 50 km from this temple, a district called Fukiya is registered as a Japan Heritage site as "the birthplace of Japan Red."

Fukiya prospered as a mining town producing bengala and copper since the Edo period, and bengala was manufactured there until 1970. Even now, the townscape reportedly continues for about 1.5 km and is designated as a Preservation District for Groups of Traditional Buildings, with buildings uniformly painted with bengala.

It's a color that evokes nostalgia.

Fukiya bengala was artificially produced using iron sulfide (FeS, Fe₂S₃, etc.), a byproduct from copper mines, as raw material. They would roast the iron sulfide to create an intermediate product called Roha, a pale blue iron sulfate hydrate (FeSO₄·nH₂O), and then oxidize this to produce bengala (Fe₂O₃).

Bengala has reportedly been used for Ni-nuri as a substitute for pigment of mercuric red since ancient times. Pigment of mercuric red was extremely valuable, so it was probably impossible to paint large areas with it.

The Phoenix Hall of Byodoin Temple, built by Fujiwara no Yorimichi, was painted with bengala (see previous article), but if it had been planned by his father Fujiwara no Michinaga, the most powerful aristocrat of the Heian period, he might have forcefully specified 100% Shinshu.

Because bengala is environmentally friendly and low cost, it is still used for Ni-nuri in various ways. It seems to be often used mixed with Honshu or red lead to adjust colors.

Depending on how yellow tints are added, I believe it has the potential to completely replace red lead. Perhaps a dramatic development awaits where humanity's oldest pigment comes into the spotlight in the Reiwa era.

◆ Diversification of color materials

Ni-nuri is done by using different pigments such as Honshu, red lead, and bengala, or by mixing these to adjust colors. New pigments are also being used, as at Itsukushima Shrine. Indeed, there are various color tones. I believe that each shrine makes some effort to maintain and pass down these color tones, but it seems that no manuals exist, so accurate information is difficult to find.

The West Pagoda at Yakushiji Temple	Motonosumi Shrine
Kifune Shrine	Fujisanhongu Sengentaisha

In the case of Shinshu, it might be discernible when viewed up close, but identifying the specific pigments is not easy.

◆About the Perception of 朱色(Shu-iro)

Here, I will examine how vermilion came to be called "朱色(Shu-iro)" in Japanese. Originally, 朱色(Shu-iro) should have referred to 真朱(Shinshu), so why did this slight shift occur? Building on the content from the previous article, I will consider this question while organizing information from ancient times.


Originally, "丹(Ni)" was a word referring to soil, representing yellow soil or red soil. Eventually, it is believed that its meaning changed to exclusively refer to red pigments such as red soil, bengala, and cinnabar.

Both bengala and cinnabar were already widely used as talismans during the Kofun period. As such usage became established, the word "丹(Ni)" came to refer not only to the pigment itself but also to the red color produced by these pigments.

I believe that by this point, "丹(Ni)" as a coloring material was already limited to scenes dealing with sacred matters. Furthermore, as the most precious pigment of mercuric red became "the representative of 丹(Ni)" rather than bengala, the perception that "丹(Ni) = cinnabar" became common. This can be said to represent a state where "丹(Ni) became separated from soil."

In the Gishi Wajinden (Records of Wei on the Japanese, which is a description of Japan found in the "Book of Wei" section of the Chinese historical text "Records of the Three Kingdoms"), the term "朱丹(Shu-tan)" appears. It is natural to consider that "朱(Shu)" here is a character modifying "丹(Ni)."
Therefore, I believe this expression means "Ni of Shu color = cinnabar of Shu-color," which indicates that "朱(Shu)" is a name for a type of red color.

The character "朱(Shu)" does not appear in the Kojiki. However, both 真朱(Shinshu) and 銀朱(Ginshu) appear in the Shoku Nihongi (Chronicles of Japan, Continued, completed in 797), so I believe it is reasonable to assume that by the end of the Heian period, "朱(Shu)" meaning "the color made from cinnabar" had become common.

Since it is a word that came from China, I believe that initially, both Japan and China used almost the same definition, referring to the color of mercuric red.


However, when we examine the current perception of 朱色(Shu-iro), we find something like this. This is exactly as described in Wikipedia.

I think this is quite an extreme example, but even so, it seems to me that Japan's 朱色(Shu-iro) is often closer to orange. And China's "朱(Shu)" still resembles 真朱(Shinshu; true cinnabar) even today.

Here, the transition of Ni-nuri becomes important. Japan's sacred paintings eventually came to be called "Ni-nuri." At first, the color made with cinnabar became the "representative color of Ni-nuri."


Pigments derived from cinnabar were the first choice for Ni-nuri, but because they were extremely precious, bengala, which had long been used as a talisman and had a color close to Shinshu, began to be used as a second choice alongside it.


Later, when red lead appeared and began to be produced domestically during the Muromachi period, it became a strong option for 丹(Ni). As a consequence, bengala as a substitute material was less frequently used on its own, and it is believed that Ni-nuri gradually shifted toward the yellowish hue of red lead.


The options for Ni-nuri from the Muromachi period onward became as follows.

ABCD
From left to right: "Lead red 1, Lead red 2, 銀朱(Ginshu), 真朱(Shinshu) and Bengala"

I believe this trend shifted the focus for Ni-nuri pigments to "the degree of yellowish tint."
Perhaps  this vibrant type of 真朱(Shinshu), which could even appear pinkish at times, was given special treatment.

Also, by this time, the word "朱(Shu)" would have spread to common people, so "丹塗り(Ni-nuri)" must have also come to be called "朱塗り(Shu-nuri)." In the case of Ni, it means ''to paint something with Ni,'' but for Shu, it means ''to paint something into Shu.'' We can say that both Ni-nuri and Shu-nuri essentially mean ''to paint something into Shu with Ni.''

With bengala being used less frequently, "the color at the very center of common Shu-nuri" is at position B, so around this time, the colors in the range of "B　Lead red 2 or 銀朱(Ginshu)" must have been what was called 朱色(Shu-iro).
Since the substance is the same, the later establishment of "vermilion = Shu-iro" can be considered appropriate.

Western painting was introduced in the 16th century, but serious technical research began after the eighth Tokugawa shogun, Yoshimune, relaxed the ban on foreign books. By the Edo period, it's possible that the Japanese name was assigned after first learning about the manufacturing method of vermilion. I believe the first Japanese name was likely established as "銀朱(Ginshu)."


Furthermore, although I believe there were regional differences, the frequency of red lead usage became overwhelming. I think the final "center point" is at position A.

A
Thus, this type of color became the mainstream perception of 朱色(Shu-iro) in present-day Japan.

If the method of making red lead had not been introduced, and bengala as a substitute had played a more significant role...
  CD
Originally, considering these were the options including vibrant 真朱(Shinshu), 朱色(Shu-iro) must have been referring to 真朱(Shinshu) itself. After all, it's only natural since they were calling it "真朱(Shinshu; true shu)."

To summarize, it developed as follows:
"丹(Ni) = yellow soil/red soil"
→ "丹(Ni) = red soil/bengala/cinnabar"
→ "丹(Ni) = sacred red and its pigments"
→ "丹(Ni) of Ni-nuri = cinnabar, with bengala as substitute"
→ "丹(Ni) of Ni-nuri = pigment of Shu-nuri = cinnabar and red lead"
→ "丹(Ni) of Ni-nuri = pigment of Shu-nuri = mostly red lead"
.. "朱色(Shu-iro) is the color of Ni-nuri painted with red lead"


Today, "丹(Ni)" and "朱(Shu)" have different meanings depending on the context. 丹色(Ni-iro) is certainly not the color of 丹(Ni), and the 朱(Shu) of mercuric red is different from 朱色(Shu-iro). And sometimes 丹色(Ni-iro) and 朱色(Shu-iro) are considered the same, while in other cases they are distinguished from each other.

Also, 朱色(Shu-iro) is not limited to the color of red lead, and 銀朱(Ginshu; vermilion), which was the original 朱色(Shu-iro), remains 朱色(Shu-iro) as well. In terms of range, it might be something like this. All of these are "朱色(Shu-iro)."
   

Referring to 真朱(Shinshu) as "朱色(Shu-iro)" occurs only in extremely limited contexts. Today, when people hear "朱色(Shu-iro)," wouldn't most people imagine a color like that of Fushimi Inari Taisha, or an even more yellowish orange?


However, since the color of 朱(Shu) was originally "真朱(Shinshu)," it should have been a color like this.

I wonder if we can't go back to the original meaning. It's like 真鯛(True tai; Red sea bream) is no longer the representative of 鯛(tai; sea bream) or as if only artificial vanilla was included in the vanilla assortment while "true vanilla" wasn't selected. I think it would have been best if 真朱(Shinshu) had remained "朱色(Shu-iro)," with vermilion having the Japanese name "銀朱(Ginshu)," and the color of red lead being called "鉛丹色(red lead color)."

Summary

Over the course of two articles, I have explored the pigment "丹(Ni)." As seen in the transition of 朱色(Shu-iro), the vibrant red seen in temple and shrine buildings is deeply rooted in Japanese culture, but I have also learned that it faces challenges such as environmental issues and health hazards. For traditional colors to be passed on to the future, I believe that early resolution of these problems is essential. I sincerely hope that the original colors will continue to be reproduced for generations to come.

Next time will be the conclusion of the 'Aka' in the Kojiki series.
At last, we will arrive at the examination of "丹(Ni) in the Kojiki."
Please look forward to it.