Japanese Blue and Green #22_ The Edo Period (Part 1)

Japanese Blue and Green #22

In the previous article, we examined the concept of "青" (Ao) during the Azuchi-Momoyama period. The properties of "Ao" at that time can be summarized as follows:

A. Color name: subdued green tones
B. Tone name: ambiguous states such as grayish colors, or extremely low brightness states that are "almost black"
C. Color group name: completely encompassing the range from blue to green
D. Plants in general; the color of chlorophyll
E. Young and immature states

Behind the use of "Ao" to describe the dark green glaze of Oribe ware lies Japan's unique perception of "Ao," which encompasses both hue and tone. This suggests that characteristics A through E remained very much alive even through the turbulent Sengoku era.

Starting from this article, we turn to the perception of "Ao" in the Edo period. The Edo period was an era of remarkable intellectual development. The study of honzōgaku — encyclopedic natural history rooted in pharmacology — flourished during this time, and numerous works were compiled that referenced Chinese literature while incorporating original Japanese observations. Notable examples include Kaibara Ekiken's "Yamato Honzō (大和本草, 1709)" and Terajima Ryōan's "Wakan Sansai Zue (和漢三才図会, ca. 1712)" — both of which were introduced in the previous section "Confusion in Black Sea Bream Recognition."

These works contain numerous descriptions of the colors of plants and animals, offering valuable glimpses into how "Ao" was used at the time. In this article, we focus on the descriptions of fish found in these honzōgaku texts.

◆"青魚 (Ao Fish)" in the Edo Period

Let us begin with "Saba" (mackerel) — perhaps the most iconic fish associated with the character "青" (Ao). The Chinese character for mackerel, 鯖, is composed of the fish radical 魚 combined with 青 (Ao). Chinese literature classifies the body color of mackerel as "正青色" (Zhèng qīng sè), which can be understood as a standard or reference color for "Ao" in the Chinese tradition — a blue-green tone that is not quite pure blue. Both "Yamato Honzō" and "Wakan Sansai Zue" adopt this term "正青色" directly from Chinese sources without offering their own color descriptions.

However, when Terajima Ryōan, the author of "Wakan Sansai Zue," recorded his own observations, he chose a different character rather than "青" (Ao). Interestingly, "蒼" is also read as "Ao" in Japanese — a near-homonym with nearly the same meaning — yet Terajima deliberately chose this character over "青" (Ao) to describe the back of mackerel and yellowtail, and used "蒼黒" (Soukoku) for sardine.

mackerel	yellowtail	sardine

The character "蒼" is composed of the grass radical 艸 (くさかんむり) over the character "倉" (storehouse), suggesting a muted, dried and stored green — a color that is somewhat dark and deep, ranging from blue to blue-green. It is telling that while Terajima deferred to Chinese literature by citing "正青色," he consistently chose "蒼" and "蒼黒" when expressing his own observations. This suggests that "青" and "蒼" were treated as clearly distinct concepts at the time, and also allows us to infer that describing these fish as "青" (Ao) in Japanese did not come naturally to him.

Similarly, Kaibara Ekiken, the author of "Yamato Honzō" (大和本草), when explaining why mackerel is written as 鯖 and called "Aosaba"(=mackerel with "Ao"), offered neither his own observations nor his own color perception, relying entirely on Chinese sources. In other words, he never described the color of mackerel in his own words, but simply cited the Chinese term "正青色."

The term "Aosaba" already appears in "Wamyō Ruijushō" (倭名類聚抄), a dictionary compiled in the Heian period, suggesting that it was a well-established common name with a long history. Yet despite this, the fact that Ekiken felt compelled to borrow Chinese terminology when describing the color of mackerel leaves open the possibility that it was not self-evident to him that mackerel was "Ao" — or in other words, that he may have had some resistance to describing mackerel as "青" (Ao).

In modern Japan, marine fish with blue-green backs — such as mackerel, yellowtail, and sardine — are collectively referred to as "青魚" (Aozakana: fish with "Ao"). However, "青魚" (qīngyú) in Chinese refers to an entirely different fish. Known in Japanese as "Aouо," this fish is one of the "Four Major Domestic Fish" (四大家魚) alongside Grass Carp, Silver Carp, and Bighead Carp — a large freshwater food fish closely related to carp. In other words, "青魚" (Aozakana: fish with "Ao") is a uniquely Japanese expression. Furthermore, in Japanese fishing terminology, large carangidae fish such as yellowtail, amberjack, and greater amberjack are collectively called "青物" (Aomono) — "Ao species" from a fishmonger's perspective, or "Ao catch" from an angler's.


As we have seen, the perception of these fish as "Ao" has persisted from at least the Heian period to the present day. "蒼" is also read as "Ao" in Japanese, and using "青" (Ao) as a color expression would not have been inappropriate. Yet when it came to describing hue in an academic context, "青" (Ao) appears to have been difficult to employ. The only plausible explanation is that the hue range of "青" (Ao) was simply too broad.

This suggests that even during this period, "青" (Ao) retained an overwhelmingly strong character as C. Color group name. "蒼," on the other hand, was more practical for academic use precisely because it was limited to dark and muted tones.

◆Nibe (Croaker)

While we noted that "青" (Ao) was difficult to use in academic color descriptions, there are cases where it does appear. In "Wakan Sansai Zue," the color of Nibe (Croaker) is described as "灰青色" (Hai-sei-shoku: grayish Ao).

Croaker
(Image: WEB魚図鑑)	(Image: 魚図鑑)

In the late Edo period, color names in the gray family developed significantly. Behind this lies the sumptuary laws (奢侈禁止令, Shashi Kinshirei) issued by the shogunate, which strictly prohibited luxury. The clothing of commoners was regulated in detail, from materials to colors, limiting wearable colors to roughly brown, gray, and indigo. Yet within these restrictions, an extraordinary variety of browns and grays emerged — so many that the era coined the phrase "四十八茶百鼠" (Shijuhaccha Hyaku Nezumi: forty-eight browns and a hundred grays).

It is also worth noting that Edo was a city notorious for frequent fires, as captured in the saying "Fires and fights are the flowers of Edo." The word "灰" (Hai: ash/gray), with its associations with fires and cremation, was considered unlucky and fell out of favor. In its place, "鼠色" (Nezumi-iro: mouse color), inspired by the coat of a mouse, became the established term. While listing all hundred shades of gray would be impossible here, the following are ten color names featuring "鼠" (Nezumi).

Naturally, all of these colors carry a grayish quality. While the word "灰色" (Hai-iro: gray) had already been in use since the Heian period, the proliferation of color names featuring "鼠" would have greatly reduced the need to use "青" (Ao) to express grayish qualities. It can therefore be inferred that during the Edo period, "青" (Ao) had largely lost its function of representing grayish tones — property B.

If "青" (Ao) had retained its function of expressing grayish tones, the term "灰青色" (Hai-sei-shoku: grayish Ao) would not have been necessary in the first place. It is likely that because expressions such as "灰蒼" were not in common use, "灰青" was employed as the closest available term to convey a "grayish Ao-like" quality. When a grayish tone is involved, the distinction between "青" (Ao), "蒼," and blue-green may well have fallen within an acceptable margin of ambiguity.

As for property B — specifically the function of representing extremely low brightness states that are "almost black" — no clear examples from the Edo period could be found. It nevertheless seems that by the end of the Edo period, the function of "青" (Ao) as property B had become extremely faint overall.


It is worth noting that in Japan, the swim bladder of Nibe (Croaker) was used as a source of "膠" (Nikawa: glue). Nikawa is a natural adhesive introduced from the continent during the reign of Empress Suiko, typically made from gelatin derived from livestock. However, as Japan did not have a tradition of consuming meat from land animals, Nibe came to be used as an alternative source.

Over time, the glue itself came to be called "Nibe" regardless of its source material. This gave rise to the Japanese idiom "にべもない" (Nibe mo nai), which is used to mean "cold" or "unfriendly," but literally translates as "not even a trace of Nibe" — in other words, "it won't stick at all."

◆Ao-gisu

Next, we turn to Ao-gisu, recorded as "川幾須" in "Wakan Sansai Zue." Ao-gisu is also known as Kawa-gisu, as it is sometimes found swimming upriver. Despite having "青" (Ao) in its name, Terajima Ryōan described the color of this fish as "微碧" (Biheki).

Ao-gisu	Shiro-gisu
(Images: WEB魚図鑑)

Here we encounter the character "碧" once again. "微碧" (Biheki) suggests a faint hint of "碧" — a subtly blue-green quality, which seems quite fitting. Nevertheless, it is a color that is difficult to describe precisely. "Ao-gisu" resembles "Shiro-gisu" (Shiro: white), but can be easily distinguished by the row of black spots on its dorsal fin. It also grows larger than "Shiro-gisu." Both fish have a somewhat milky white appearance. "Shiro-gisu," commonly known as Japanese Whiting, has a slightly pinkish quality. This may be a distinctly Japanese perception, but compared to "Shiro-gisu," "Ao-gisu" does indeed appear "Ao."


(Image: Marine Ecology Research Institute)

In "何羨録" (Kasenroku), Japan's oldest book dedicated to fishing written around the same time as "Wakan Sansai Zue," this fish is recorded as "蒼きす" (Ao-kisu). Personally, I find this notation quite fitting — it suits the fish remarkably well.

In any case, neither author used the character "青" for this fish, despite the fact that it was commonly called "Ao-gisu" among the general public. This further suggests that it was common understanding at the time that "青" (Ao) was simply not suitable for describing color.

"Ao-gisu" is an endangered species found almost exclusively in Japan. It was once present in Tokyo Bay, where Stepladder Fishing was a typical early summer activity. Highly cautious and sensitive to sound, the fish cannot be caught from a boat, and will even flee from the sound of human footsteps — which is why anglers took to standing on stepladders placed in the water. If this is indeed the case, one would imagine that even after setting up the stepladder, there must have been quite a wait before any fish would bite.

Stepladder Fishing (1950)

(Image: Fukagawa Yoshinoya)

However, the extensive reclamation of tidal flats during Japan's period of high economic growth led to a sharp decline in the "Ao-gisu" population. In Tokyo Bay, the last recorded catch was in 1976, after which the fish is said to have disappeared entirely. The "Ao-gisu" of Ise Bay is also believed to be extinct. Today, its habitat is said to be limited to parts of the coastlines of Oita, Yamaguchi, and Kagoshima prefectures.

"Ao-gisu" moves into coastal areas and the inner parts of bays from late spring to early summer. It spawns on tidal flats and similar areas around the rainy season, and as water temperatures drop in autumn, it migrates to deeper offshore waters.

(Image: Marine Ecology Research Institute)

There were reportedly plans to reintroduce "Ao-gisu" from the Buzen Sea (Oita Prefecture) into Tokyo Bay. However, it is known that the fish migrate to estuarine areas when they reach 1 cm in length, and remain in rivers until they grow to 8 cm. While tidal flats appear to be the spawning grounds, restoring a viable breeding environment would be extremely challenging, as it would require returning not only the tidal flats but also the rivers to conditions similar to those of the early Showa period.

After collecting opinions and verification reports from various sources, the plan was ultimately abandoned. The primary reason cited was that "there is no conclusive evidence that 'Ao-gisu' has become extinct in Tokyo Bay, and the genetic identity between the 'Ao-gisu' of the Buzen Sea and those of Tokyo Bay could not be confirmed."

It is possible that the population may have migrated somewhere as a group. It would be a blessing to think that they have quietly been carrying on, but given the current state of Tokyo Bay, this seems rather unrealistic.

(Photo courtesy of: Oita Prefectural Government / Photographer: Toshio Matsuo)

Judging from this image, the "Ao" of "Ao-gisu" appears to be a combination of property B and property C. The color contains hints of blue-purple, green, and yellow, with relatively low saturation and brightness, giving it a subdued quality. It is an exceptionally complex color, yet it feels like a quintessential example of the traditional Japanese "Ao." Unless one were to translate the name "青鱚 (Ao-gisu)" literally, it is difficult to imagine non-Japanese speakers reaching for a blue-related word to describe this fish.

If "蒼" is indeed the most fitting description for the color of this fish, it is possible to consider that within the "Ao" group, the more archaically "Ao"-like shades — such as the "Ao" of the "青色の袍 (Ao-colored robe)." — that is, "aoi Ao," evolved into what came to be expressed as "蒼." The fact that "蒼" can also describe an overcast sky makes it natural to consider "漠" (Baku) as its prototype.

Summery

In this article, we explored the perception of "Ao" through descriptions of fish in Edo period honzōgaku texts. The findings suggest that the character of "Ao" as C. Color group name remained as strong as ever, while its function as property B — represented by grayish tones — appears to have been fading.

Examining these two fish in this article brought to mind once again the sense of the first "Ao."

(Images: WEB魚図鑑)

Examining these two fish brought to mind once again the sense of the first "Ao." In the conclusion of "Japanese Blue and Green #1," the first "Ao" was described as "all cool colors + grayish colors," but in hindsight, "non-warm colors" might have been a more accurate term than "cool colors." In terms of hue, "Ao" essentially meant "anything that is not Aka (red)." This very sense, inherited from "漠" (Baku), must have been the origin of both property B and property C of "Ao." While it is unclear exactly how long this lasted, there was a prolonged period in which purple, blue, and green were all encompassed by "Ao."

From this perspective, the name "Ao-gisu" was an inevitable choice. Compared to "Shiro-gisu," which carries a slight reddish quality, "Ao-gisu" is relatively "Ao" — it simply lacks the redness. Had "Shiro-gisu" not existed in Japan, this fish might have been given an entirely different name. The reason "Shiro-gisu" was not called "Aka-gisu" is likely because there are already many genuinely red fish in Japanese waters. While there are exceptions such as "Aka-kamasu," fish bearing the name "Aka" are typically truly red. "Aka-kamasu" is not red at all, but it is relatively more "Aka" when compared to the closely related species "Yamato-kamasu." This follows the same naming logic as "Ao-gisu."

Yamato-kamasu	Aka-kamasu
(Images: WEB魚図鑑)

In Japanese, expressions such as "顔が青白い" (a pale, bluish face) have been found since the Heian period (see: The Tale of Ao-tsune). The "Ao" used to describe facial color may follow the same logic as the "Ao" of "Ao-gisu" — in other words, "Ao" because it is not red. Even in modern times, there seem to be cases where "anything that is not red is Ao." When circulation is poor, the skin can appear grayish-blue or blue-purple, as reduced blood flow causes the redness of blood to fade from the capillaries, giving the skin a bluish appearance. This does not seem to involve any inherently blue substance, suggesting it may be something akin to a visual illusion. Indeed, veins appear blue in everyday life, yet this too is said to be simply gray tissue appearing blue due to an optical illusion.

It is worth noting that in English, "青い顔" — literally "a face with the color of Ao" — is expressed as "pale face," where "pale" originally means "light" or "faint" in color. For example, lightly colored whiskey is called "pale whiskey," which makes it clear that "pale" has no connection to blue. In English, one would never say "a blue face" to describe poor complexion — a telling contrast to the Japanese use of "Ao."

The perception of a face as "Ao" among Japanese people may be an optical illusion specific to Asian skin tones. Whether it is an illusion or not, if that is genuinely how it appears, there is no problem with describing it as such. However, one might wonder — would a non-Japanese person, upon seeing a Japanese person with poor complexion, actually perceive it as "blue"?

In my view, it is highly likely that this use of "Ao" stems from the ancient sense of "Awo." Good complexion is associated with warm colors, while poor complexion with cool colors — and therefore "Ao." In other words, "Ao because it is not red." As this is a distinctly Japanese sensibility, it is only natural that "a face with the color of Ao" does not translate to non-Japanese speakers.


Furthermore, in modern Japanese, "顔が青い" (a face with the color of Ao) may in many cases have become entirely disconnected from color perception itself. When someone makes a serious mistake, the chain of association runs as follows:
making a grave error → panic → blood drains from the face → poor complexion
giving rise to expressions such as "焦って顔が青ざめた" (=turning Ao in the face from panic).

While there may indeed be cases where the face genuinely appears Ao, one might also use the expression "顔面蒼白" (Ganmen Sōhaku: literally "face — muted Ao — white") even to describe a flushed face in certain contexts. The person in a panic need not have actually looked in a mirror — it is perfectly acceptable to say afterwards "I turned Ao at that moment." In other words, "a face with the color of Ao" is a figure of speech, and the face need not actually appear Ao at all.

"Ao" is also used in "青白い" (Aojiroi: Ao-white) to describe a sickly appearance or a child who dislikes exercise. The expression "青ざめる" (Aozameru: to turn Ao) effectively conveys the image of someone frozen in shock, and it is precisely because such expressions exist that illustrations of characters with Ao-colored faces have come to be created. Non-Japanese people may find such illustrations puzzling. While it could be said that Japanese relies too heavily on "Ao," this reflects the depth of the connection between the Japanese people and "Ao."


In the next article, we will also explore the hue range of "Ao" in the Edo period.
Stay tuned!