Japanese Blue and Green #20 _ The Azuchi-Momoyama Period (Part 1)

Japanese Blue and Green #20

In the previous articles, we traced the evolution of "青 (Ao)" through the Muromachi period and also observed how "緑 (Midori)" began to emerge as an independent color term.

Over the next two articles, we will examine the Azuchi-Momoyama period.
First, let us step away from "Ao" for a moment and introduce two aesthetic philosophies that defined this era.


◆Splendor and Magnificence

This era was unique in that two contrasting aesthetic sensibilities coexisted. When we think of Azuchi-Momoyama, the first images that come to mind are the magnificent castle towers of Azuchi Castle, Fushimi Castle, and Matsumoto Castle.

Azuchi Castle Mock Tenshu	Matsumoto Castle
©Ise City Tourism Association

These magnificent buildings were adorned with equally magnificent wall paintings. The "唐獅子図屏風" (Karajishi-zu Byōbu: Chinese Lions), a National Treasure and quintessential work of Momoyama culture, was painted by Kanō Eitoku, who led the art world of this era. This folding screen was gifted by Oda Nobunaga to Toyotomi Hideyoshi. This is a painting that everyone learns about in Japanese history class. Eitoku, recognized by both Nobunaga and Hideyoshi, created wall paintings for Azuchi Castle, Jurakudai, and Osaka Castle.

National Treasure
"Chinese Lions" - Right Screen

(Image: ColBase)

The base of this enormous folding screen, standing 2.2 meters tall, is lavishly covered with gold leaf. Though difficult to see in this image, mineral pigments such as azurite and malachite were used for the rocks and lions. Azurite in particular was a precious pigment, and such vivid blue also symbolized wealth and power. It was also used in the Takamatsuzuka Kofun. (See here)

These screens form a pair, with the right screen being particularly famous. The left screen was apparently commissioned by the Mori family during the Edo period and created by Kanō Tsunenobu, Eitoku's great-grandson, to match the right screen. The Kanō school, which began with Kanō Masanobu in the Muromachi period, dominated the Japanese art world for approximately 400 years until the early Meiji period—an artistic dynasty unparalleled anywhere in the world.

"Chinese Lions"
High-Resolution Reproduction by Canon

Those in power likely sought to demonstrate their authority through such splendor and magnificence. We can also see that this preference for ostentatious displays persisted among the daimyo of the Edo period.


This is a reconstruction of the "茶室" (Chashitsu: tea room) that Toyotomi Hideyoshi had built at Fushimi Castle.


Saga Prefectural Nagoya Castle Museum

Rather than evoking Momoyama culture, this simply conveys an overwhelming concentration of power. Perhaps it was meant as a display of financial might. It would be difficult to imagine actually conducting a tea ceremony in such a space.

While a golden tea room may indeed be excessive, it seems that many powerful figures of the time went to great lengths to acquire expensive Chinese tea utensils, displaying and using them publicly to demonstrate their wealth and power.

Since one was constantly ranked by the tea utensils in their possession, perhaps he built the golden tea room as an attempt to transcend the ranking system entirely. Hideyoshi may have deliberately created something impractical and wasteful to demonstrate that he was in a league of his own.

Indeed, we can say that "Splendor and Magnificence" was fundamentally supported by extremely materialistic values.


◆Wabi-sabi

In contrast, the world of wabi-cha (austere tea ceremony) is completely different. The Raku tea bowls that 千利休 (Sen no Rikyū) had 樂長次郎 (Raku Chōjirō) create embodied Rikyū's ideals. The tranquil presence achieved through the thorough elimination of decoration is striking.

Kurorakuchawan "大黒(ōguro)"	Akarakuchawan "太郎坊(tarōbō)"
Private Collection	Collection of Urasenke Konnichian
(Image: 茶道具事典)

Originally, "茶の湯" (chanoyu: the way of tea) was introduced from Tang China, and from the Kamakura period onward, nobles and samurai demonstrated their status by holding extravagant tea gatherings called "karamono-suki" (Chinese object enthusiasm). Authentic Chinese tea utensils, known as "karamono," were highly prized and collected at great expense.

Wabi-cha emerged as a rejection of these trends, initiated by Murata Jukō in the late 15th century. It was later developed by Jukō's disciples and is said to have been perfected by Sen no Rikyū. However, the terms "wabi-cha" and "茶道" (sadō/chadō: the Japanese tea ceremony) were both coined in the Edo period—Rikyū himself called it "数寄道" (sukidō).

The dictionary definition of "wabi" is "a calm, quiet, and simple aesthetic." While it's too philosophical to define easily, I found an explanation that aids understanding. The character "侘" consists of "person" (人) and "dwelling" (宅), meaning "being alone at home." By imagining a quiet, secluded way of life, we can come closer to understanding "wabi."

The term "wabi-sabi" is also frequently used. "Sabi" refers to the patina and character that objects acquire through the passage of time, and this word apparently came into use during the Edo period. Adding "ru" creates verbs: people "wabiru" while objects "sabiru." This suggests that "wabi" relates to spirituality while "sabi" relates to beauty itself. When combined as "wabi-sabi," it seems to refer to an encompassing aesthetic sensibility and value system.


The National Treasure "待庵 (Taian)" is Japan's oldest tea room and the only surviving tea room created by Sen no Rikyū. Using natural materials as they are, its exterior is extremely simple. The mere two-tatami space surrounded by gray earthen walls is also remarkably simple, yet it is said to incorporate various thoughtful details for hosting guests, such as the light from the "下地窓" (shitajimado: a window where part of the earthen wall is intentionally left unplastered to reveal the wall's underlying bamboo framework), the composition of the tokonoma alcove, and the contrasting textures of materials.

待庵(Taian) in 妙喜庵(Myōkian)

(Image: Leaf KYOTO)

(Image: NHK)

While it appears to be a style that has eliminated all excess, there is always meticulous consideration and calculation behind it.

I feel that modesty is essential to "wabi," the quiet, secluded way of life. When "sabi" is added, perhaps it becomes "modestly and quietly weathering away." It's natural that the visual result would be the complete opposite of "splendor and magnificence."


◆Examining the Duality

Throughout the Sengoku period, the values of "splendor and magnificence" coexisted with those of "wabi-sabi." Rather than different people preferring one or the other, perhaps most people were influenced by both of these value systems.

Toyotomi Hideyoshi studied the Way of Tea with Sen no Rikyū, and there was even a two-tatami tea room within Osaka Castle. While we don't know the depth of his understanding of wabi-cha, and tea gatherings were certainly used for various purposes, many other daimyo also lived in magnificent castles while immersing themselves in a different world within their dark, small tea rooms.

In an era when displaying power was the norm, it was perhaps quite natural to use "splendor and magnificence" in public settings while embracing "wabi" in private spaces. These were not opposing forces but rather seemed to function as two sides of the same coin within a single culture.

Toyotomi Hideyoshi

by Kanō Mitsunobu

Moreover, in a world where hierarchy existed at every level and people were constantly being ranked, for samurai, splendor and magnificence allowed them to feel their power and dignity, and also served as a performance to boost morale.

On the other hand, the philosophy of "wabi-sabi" must have played an important role in the lives of many daimyo and samurai. The essence of the Way of Tea is the same as Zen, valuing inner fulfillment. They could have had time to calm their minds and reflect on themselves, as well as time to escape from reality. Precisely because this was an era that strongly demanded both outward power and inner strength, these two different aesthetic philosophies could coexist.

Here, I would like to introduce Hasegawa Tōhaku as a representative artist of this era. I believe he is indispensable when examining the duality of Momoyama culture.

Hasegawa Tōhaku studied under the Kanō school in his thirties but left to establish his own distinctive style. He had exchanges with Rikyū and received commissions from Daitoku-ji Temple, which had deep connections to the Way of Tea. His reputation gradually grew, and eventually the Hasegawa school became rivals with the Kanō school.

"楓図" (Kaedezu: Viewing Maple Leaves) was part of the wall paintings at the former Shōun-ji Temple, which Toyotomi Hideyoshi built to commemorate his son Tsurumatsu, who died at the age of three.

National Treasure  Viewing Maple Leaves (1591)

Chishakuin Temple

While it is undeniably magnificent, when compared to the "Chinese Lions," there is something distinctly different about it. It has an indescribable, mysterious sense of depth.

Let me also introduce the "桜図" (Sakurazu: Cherry Tree) painted by Hasegawa Kyūzō, Tōhaku's eldest son.

National Treasure  Cherry Tree (1591)

Chishakuin Temple

I feel these two wall paintings should not be dismissed as merely "splendor and magnificence." Kyūzō's skill was said to surpass even his father Tōhaku's, and he was expected to become the next head of the Hasegawa school. However, he died just two years after painting this, at the young age of 26.

And immediately afterward, he created what is considered the masterpiece of ink painting, the National Treasure "松林図屏風" (Shōrin-zu byōbu: Pine Trees screen). 

National Treasure  Pine Trees screen (c. 1593-1595)
(Image: ColBase)

(Tokyo National Museum)

The work exhibits energy, power, and a sense of depth that seems to continue endlessly.

Ink painting was introduced from China during the Kamakura period along with Zen Buddhism, and the works of Muxi (Mokkei), a Zen monk renowned as an ink painter, gained great popularity. Tōhaku was also greatly influenced by him. However, "Pine Trees screen" is highly praised not merely for adopting the technique but for sublimating it into pure Japanese painting, magnificently expressing Japan's humid atmosphere.

This tranquil scene has been described as "the realm of wabi," but personally, I feel it's wrong to dismiss this simply as "wabi" as well. While I'm not sure if "magnificent" is appropriate, if this screen were displayed, it would undoubtedly have an intimidating presence too.

Incidentally, the portrait of Sen no Rikyū frequently shown on television was painted by Tōhaku after Rikyū's death.

Portrait of Rikyū Koji (1595)

Collection of Omotesenke Fushin'an

Perhaps the two felt some kind of sympathy with each other. During his unknown period, Tōhaku received major commissions from Daitoku-ji Temple and others through Rikyū, making Rikyū a lifelong benefactor to Tōhaku. It's also interesting that Rikyū recognized Tōhaku's paintings. Despite an age difference of more than a decade, these two representative artists of a difficult era may have shared their similar struggles with each other.

However, with Rikyū's death in 1591 and his eldest son's death in 1593, Tōhaku must have suffered tremendous emotional damage in quick succession, yet he overcame these hardships to complete "Pine Trees screen."

The duality of Momoyama culture can also be felt through Sen no Rikyū's way of life. Essentially, the sources of aesthetic consciousness were Taian and Jurakudai (or Jurakutei: Toyotomi Hideyoshi's government office and residence), the symbol of Momoyama culture. As the tea master serving Hideyoshi, Rikyū was permitted to have a residence within Jurakudai, meaning he conducted his activities to convey wabi while based in two contrasting locations: a place that seemed to embody "splendor and magnificence" itself, and the tea rooms that stood in stark contrast to it. Also, though it seems unlikely he desired it, Rikyū is said to have designed the aforementioned golden tea room.

Jurakudai Screen (detail)  Artist Unknown

Collection of Mitsui Memorial Museum

While aligning himself with Hideyoshi's authority on one hand, he stripped away ornate decoration as if rejecting all rankings and artificial elements to embody his own philosophy. Although many of Rikyū's words and teachings have been preserved, there is almost nothing that reveals his personal feelings. However, I believe each of his actions speaks volumes.

Rikyū served Hideyoshi for about nine years from 1582, but was ultimately ordered to commit seppuku. There are various theories and the reason remains unclear, but it seems at least that Rikyū had not committed any fatal offense. Hideyoshi apparently sent a message through an intermediary saying he would forgive Rikyū if he apologized, so it's hard to believe he truly desired Rikyū's death. He was probably just trying to put Rikyū, whose influence was growing day by day, in his place. Having someone nearby who wouldn't bend to his will was inconvenient.

However, Rikyū accepted the order for seppuku without showing any intention to apologize. He reportedly left the words, "There are things that can be protected by bowing one's head, and there are things that cannot be protected precisely because one bows." So despite having no reason to apologize, there must have been something important enough to protect at such a cost.

Hideyoshi must have understood Rikyū's convictions from before, but stubbornly maintaining his dignity was also absolutely necessary in that era. I believe neither wanted to create a situation where the two value systems were in opposition, but it was inevitable that the mindset of constantly seeking to expand power and the mindset of believing one should always live modestly would cease to align.

Did Rikyū actually wish to reform Hideyoshi's thinking through his own influence? They might have gotten along well initially, and it may have been beneficial for Rikyū, but the two seem highly incompatible. Did he serve reluctantly, wanting to refuse but lacking the right to do so? If someone only learns the tea ceremony procedures without agreeing with the essence of wabi, I imagine it would be stressful for the teacher.

In the same year he ordered Rikyū's seppuku, Hideyoshi decided to invade Korea. Perhaps Rikyū had been trying from the beginning of his service to stop the runaway ruler through the spirit of wabi, but his true intentions will never be known.


Summery

In the tumultuous era of Azuchi-Momoyama, people sought different kinds of power: outward dominance and inward self-preservation. These two types of needs created two directions, and as expressions suited to each purpose were explored, two aesthetic philosophies emerged: "splendor and magnificence" and "wabi-sabi."

Furthermore, Sen no Rikyū, who stood at the center of these two currents, met a tragic end. While injustice is inseparable from history, there is always the fundamental factor of overwhelming power behind it.

When I consider that Rikyū left his legacy in exchange for his life with full understanding of everything, it feels entirely natural that "Japanese tea ceremony" has been carefully passed down to the present day, despite being buffeted by the times. What he protected was not material objects but spirituality and its value—perhaps that is why the determination of those involved remains so steadfast.


Among Sen no Rikyū's leading disciples was Furuta Oribe, a warrior tea master. It is said that Rikyū advised Oribe to pursue a path different from his own. After Rikyū's death, Oribe followed these words, pursuing his own unique aesthetic and creating entirely new ceramics. In the next article, we will explore how "Ao" functioned in this era through "Ao-Oribe" pottery.